Java String Pool Explained: Internals, Pitfalls and Performance

public class StringPoolLocation {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        // Literal strings: JVM places these in the String Pool at class-load time.
        // Both variables point to THE SAME object in the pool.
        String greeting1 = "hello";
        String greeting2 = "hello";

        // new String() bypasses the pool and allocates on the regular heap.
        // This creates a BRAND NEW object, even though the content is identical.
        String greeting3 = new String("hello");

        // intern() looks up the pool for a canonical copy.
        // If "hello" is already pooled (it is — we declared it as a literal above),
        // intern() returns that pooled reference. No new object is created.
        String greeting4 = greeting3.intern();

        System.out.println("=== Reference Equality (==) ===");

        // true — both literals resolve to the same pooled object
        System.out.println("greeting1 == greeting2 : " + (greeting1 == greeting2));

        // false — greeting3 is a heap object, NOT the pooled reference
        System.out.println("greeting1 == greeting3 : " + (greeting1 == greeting3));

        // true — intern() returned the same pooled object that greeting1 points to
        System.out.println("greeting1 == greeting4 : " + (greeting1 == greeting4));

        System.out.println("\n=== Value Equality (equals) ===");

        // All three print true — equals() compares characters, not memory addresses
        System.out.println("greeting1.equals(greeting2) : " + greeting1.equals(greeting2));
        System.out.println("greeting1.equals(greeting3) : " + greeting1.equals(greeting3));
        System.out.println("greeting1.equals(greeting4) : " + greeting1.equals(greeting4));

        System.out.println("\n=== Identity Hash Codes (approximates memory address) ===");

        // greeting1 and greeting2 will show the SAME hash — same object
        System.out.println("greeting1 identity: " + System.identityHashCode(greeting1));
        System.out.println("greeting2 identity: " + System.identityHashCode(greeting2));

        // greeting3 will show a DIFFERENT hash — different heap object
        System.out.println("greeting3 identity: " + System.identityHashCode(greeting3));

        // greeting4 matches greeting1 — intern() handed back the pooled reference
        System.out.println("greeting4 identity: " + System.identityHashCode(greeting4));
    }
}

public class StringPoolPopulation {

    // This constant is resolved at COMPILE TIME.
    // The bytecode for this class will contain the literal "active" in its constant pool.
    static final String COMPILE_TIME_STATUS = "active";

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        // --- Compile-time constant folding ---

        // The compiler sees two string literals being concatenated.
        // It folds them into one literal "activeuser" at compile time.
        // Bytecode: ldc "activeuser" — a single load-constant instruction.
        String foldedAtCompile = "active" + "user";

        // This is also the literal "activeuser" — same pooled object.
        String explicitLiteral = "activeuser";

        // true — compiler folded the concatenation; both are the same pooled object
        System.out.println("Compile-time fold == literal: " + (foldedAtCompile == explicitLiteral));

        // --- Runtime concatenation — NOT folded ---

        String roleSuffix = "user"; // roleSuffix is a variable, not a compile-time constant

        // At runtime the JVM calls:
        //   new StringBuilder().append("active").append(roleSuffix).toString()
        // toString() allocates a NEW String on the heap. Not pooled.
        String builtAtRuntime = "active" + roleSuffix;

        // false — builtAtRuntime is a heap object, NOT the pooled "activeuser"
        System.out.println("Runtime concat == literal  : " + (builtAtRuntime == explicitLiteral));

        // true — content is the same; equals() doesn't care about pool membership
        System.out.println("Runtime concat .equals()  : " + builtAtRuntime.equals(explicitLiteral));

        // --- intern() bridges the gap ---

        // Force the runtime-built string into the pool (or get back the existing entry).
        String internedRuntime = builtAtRuntime.intern();

        // true — intern() returned the canonical pooled reference
        System.out.println("After intern() == literal  : " + (internedRuntime == explicitLiteral));

        // --- final fields ARE compile-time constants (if primitives or String literals) ---

        final String finalPrefix = "active"; // treated as a compile-time constant
        String builtFromFinal = finalPrefix + "user"; // compiler CAN fold this

        // true — because finalPrefix is a compile-time constant, the compiler folds it
        System.out.println("Final field fold == literal: " + (builtFromFinal == explicitLiteral));
    }
}

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;

public class InternPerformanceDemo {

    // Simulate a dataset where only 5 distinct country codes appear
    // but they repeat across millions of records.
    private static final String[] COUNTRY_CODES = {"US", "GB", "DE", "FR", "JP"};

    public static void main(String[] args) throws InterruptedException {

        final int RECORD_COUNT = 5_000_000;

        // --- Scenario A: No interning — 5 million heap String objects ---

        List<String> rawStrings = new ArrayList<>(RECORD_COUNT);

        long beforeRaw = Runtime.getRuntime().totalMemory() - Runtime.getRuntime().freeMemory();

        for (int i = 0; i < RECORD_COUNT; i++) {
            // new String() forces a fresh heap allocation every time.
            // Even though the content is one of only 5 values, we create 5M objects.
            String countryCode = new String(COUNTRY_CODES[i % COUNTRY_CODES.length]);
            rawStrings.add(countryCode);
        }

        long afterRaw = Runtime.getRuntime().totalMemory() - Runtime.getRuntime().freeMemory();
        System.out.printf("Without intern(): ~%,d bytes used for string objects%n",
                (afterRaw - beforeRaw));

        rawStrings = null; // allow GC of the raw list
        System.gc();
        Thread.sleep(200); // give GC a moment

        // --- Scenario B: With interning — only 5 pooled objects, list holds 5M refs ---

        List<String> internedStrings = new ArrayList<>(RECORD_COUNT);

        long beforeInterned = Runtime.getRuntime().totalMemory() - Runtime.getRuntime().freeMemory();

        for (int i = 0; i < RECORD_COUNT; i++) {
            // intern() ensures we store a reference to one of 5 canonical pool objects.
            // The temporary new String() object becomes immediately eligible for GC.
            String countryCode = new String(COUNTRY_CODES[i % COUNTRY_CODES.length]).intern();
            internedStrings.add(countryCode);
        }

        long afterInterned = Runtime.getRuntime().totalMemory() - Runtime.getRuntime().freeMemory();
        System.out.printf("With    intern(): ~%,d bytes used for string objects%n",
                (afterInterned - beforeInterned));

        // --- Verify correctness: interned copies are reference-equal ---
        String firstEntry  = internedStrings.get(0);  // "US"
        String sixthEntry  = internedStrings.get(5);  // "US" again (index 5 % 5 == 0)

        // true — both are the same pooled "US" object
        System.out.println("\nSame pooled reference for repeated value: "
                + (firstEntry == sixthEntry));

        // The interned country codes are reference-equal to the original literals.
        // "US" was already in the pool because we have a literal COUNTRY_CODES array.
        System.out.println("Interned 'US' == literal 'US': " + (firstEntry == "US"));
    }
}

public class DeduplicationVsPool {

    /**
     * Run with: java -XX:+UseG1GC -XX:+UseStringDeduplication
     *                -XX:+PrintStringDeduplicationStatistics
     *                DeduplicationVsPool
     *
     * This demo highlights the conceptual difference between the String Pool
     * and G1 String Deduplication.
     */
    public static void main(String[] args) throws InterruptedException {

        // --- String Pool behaviour (reference equality) ---

        String pooledA = "transaction";   // goes into pool at class-load time
        String pooledB = "transaction";   // JVM returns the SAME pooled reference

        // true — same object in the pool
        System.out.println("Pool: pooledA == pooledB → " + (pooledA == pooledB));

        // --- Heap strings (candidates for G1 deduplication) ---

        // These are NOT in the pool — they're regular heap objects.
        // new String(char[]) always allocates fresh, regardless of content.
        String heapA = new String(new char[]{'t','r','a','n','s','a','c','t','i','o','n'});
        String heapB = new String(new char[]{'t','r','a','n','s','a','c','t','i','o','n'});

        // false — two separate heap objects, even if G1 later deduplicates their char[]
        System.out.println("Heap: heapA == heapB → " + (heapA == heapB));

        // true — character content is identical
        System.out.println("Heap: heapA.equals(heapB) → " + heapA.equals(heapB));

        // Trigger a GC cycle so G1 can deduplicate if the flag is set.
        // After this, heapA and heapB's INTERNAL byte[] may be the same object
        // (G1 deduplication), but heapA and heapB themselves are still different.
        System.gc();
        Thread.sleep(500);

        // Still false — deduplication only collapses the backing array,
        // NOT the String wrapper objects. == still compares object references.
        System.out.println("After GC: heapA == heapB → " + (heapA == heapB));

        // --- intern() converts a heap string to a pool reference ---

        String internedA = heapA.intern();
        String internedB = heapB.intern();

        // true — both now refer to the canonical pooled "transaction"
        System.out.println("After intern(): internedA == internedB → " + (internedA == internedB));

        // true — pooled reference equals the original literal
        System.out.println("internedA == pooledA → " + (internedA == pooledA));
    }
}